Country Lovers: a Reader’s Response

Country Lovers, Nadine Gordimer TLC 25 November 2012 ? Nadine Gordimer dramatically depicts the theme of forbidden love in Country Lovers, but more than just the depth of this love, the forbidden relationship between races during the years of apartheid. Gordimer brings forward very early the fact of racial division, â€Å"the black children are making along with the bodily changes common to all, an easy transition to adult forms of address, beginning to call their old playmates missus and baasie little master†. Gordimer, 1975) This short story powerfully demonstrates the ever present desire for that which is taboo and the often very tragic end for all concerned in an overtly subjugated society, race notwithstanding. She sets the story in South Africa on the farm owned by the white Eysendeck Family, early in the childhood of their son Paalus and the young black girl, Thebedi.The vivid descriptions or Local Color are depictions of culture and landscape within this setting allow the author to depict the atmosphere that shaped the characters moral values of individuals in a particular region. (Clugston, 6. 4) The use of setting, in this case the time and place of the story also illustrates Milhauser’s opinion, â€Å"†¦ if you concentrate your attention on some apparently insignificant portion of the world, you will find, deep within it, nothing less than the world itself.The author also cleverly uses foreshadowing to allude to issues the characters may deal with, â€Å"The trouble was Paalus Eysendeck did not seem to realize Thebdi was now simply one of the crowd of farm children down at the kraal†. (Gordimer, 1975) The overwhelming sense of cultural taboo was evident throughout the story and was recognized by both characters in their need to be secretive in their meetings. The use of foreshadowing and setting strongly supported the themes in the story, allowing Gordimer to bring the reader closer to the heart to the story.Although Nadine Gordimer grew up in South Africa during the enforcement of apartheid and attempted throughout her years of writing to bring attention to the under privileged; she and many other writers did not have the ability or desire to discuss the unfortunate issues that generations of the often over-indulged and morally corrupt class also had to face, â€Å"I will try and carry on as best I can to hold my head up in the district. † (Gordimer, 1975) The characters throughout this story were strong and richly developed.Both Paalus and Thebedi were similarly portrayed as equally developing young people in the illustrations of their interactions with classmates and friends, an example being the gifts they exchanged on holidays and the joy they gained admiration of them. (Gordimer) Ms. Gordimer expertly executed the account of two young people that were lifelong friends and eventually secret lovers and the on pressures that society, class and race can have on those individuals.An incredible sense of despair is exposed in the passages discussing the issues faced by the characters, Thebedi and Paalus, both showed a feeling of loss of control of the situation when he stated, â€Å"I feel like killing myself†; she could not help but feel sadness for a man she likely still loved, â€Å"her eyes began to glow, to thicken with tears†. (Gordimer, 1975) This effort to bring the ominous mood to the reader is astonishingly effective. In the last portion of the story the dialogue of the main characters demonstrates the deliberate change in the characters.Paalus becomes very aware of the potentially catastrophic outcome of his and Thebedi’s indulgences. The shift in characterization was brilliantly executed with the seemingly formidable white man becoming the pariah in the district where his family was well respected. The conflict or struggle within both characters became what to do with the baby who was the product of forbidden love in an unaccepting society. Lastly, the reader is made aware of several shifts that have shift occurred. The first shift being for Paalus and the Eysendeck family by being lowered in status â€Å" left with his mother’s raincoat shielding his face from photographers†.The next obvious shift of the Judge in his statement in court actually raised Njabolu’s status, †by commending the honorable behavior of the husband†¦ and even provided clothes for the unfortunate infant out of his slender means. † (Gordimer, 1975) The final line of the story provides insight on the outcome by bringing to light the fact that the girl â€Å"in her own language stated that â€Å"it was a thing of our childhood and they don’t see each other anymore’’ The symbolic nature of this last line demonstrated the eventual movement forward of the young woman and her embracing her life as it was set in motion by time and society to be. REFERENCES: Clugston, R. W. (2010). Journey into literature. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Milhauser, S. (2008). The Ambition of the Short Story. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www. nytimes. com/2008/10/05/books/review/Millhauser-t. html

Criminal Law Study Guide Essay

Murder carries a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment, which is 15 years. Sound memory—the person responsible must not be insane. Age of discretion — a child less than 10 years old is not criminally responsible for his/her actions. Since S. 34 of the Crime and Disorder Act of 1998 the presumption of doli incapax has been abolished and consequently any child over 10 years has potentially full legal capacity. Unlawfully kills — the act must be an unlawful killing. The law recognises that in certain circumstances the killing may be either justified or authorised eg. xecution or self defence. Living human being — a foetus is not deemed in law to be a living human being. However, a murder conviction may be possible if a foetus is injured and, after birth, dies as a result of injuries sustained whilst in the womb. Attorney-General’s Reference (No 3, 1994) 1996. A defendant cannot be convicted of the murder of someone who is already dead at the time of the attack. R v Maicherek and Steel 1981 The accused had seriously wounded the victim who was then artificially maintained on a respirator. When it was discovered that irreversible brain damage had occurred the respirator was turned off M was found guilty of murder and his appeal was dismissed when he claimed the doctor had caused death. It was his act which caused death. The court appeared to favour the approach that death occurs when the victim is brain-dead. Queen’s Peace — killing an enemy during wartime is not murder. Malice aforethought — since the case of R v Moloney the mens rea of murder is the intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm. ACTUS REUS The actus reus of murder is that the killing is unlawful, causation must be stablished (A caused B’s death) and the victim must be a human being. (see causation notes from AS). MENS REA DIAGRAM MENS REA The mens rea of murder is malice aforethought which is the intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm (GBH). There are two forms of intent: †¢ Direct intent — this is what D desires, eg. pointing a gun at someone and sh ooting them because you want to kill them. It was their aim or purpose to kill. †¢ Indirect or oblique intent — this is not necessarily what D desires but what he foresees will almost certainly happen, eg. D sets fire to a building and killed someone, did he foresee the risk that death might occur? Four important cases must be looked at. R v Moloney 1985 A soldier shot and killed his stepfather in response to a drunken challenge. He claimed that he had not aimed the gun at the victim and had, at the time, no idea that firing it would cause injury. The judge directed the jury that intention included both desire and foresight of probable consequences and the defendant was convicted of murder. Held (HL) Appeal allowed, manslaughter substituted. Lord Bridge did state that it was possible to intend a result which you do not actually want. He gave the example of a man who is trying to escape, who boards a plane to Manchester. Even though he may have no desire to go to Manchester — he may even hate the place — it is clearly where he intends to go. However, the appeal was allowed because foresight of consequences can only be evidence of intention — it is up to the jury to decide. R v Hancock and Shankland 1986 Two striking miners pushed concrete from a bridge onto a road, killing a taxi driver. They claimed only to intend to block the road or frighten the taxi passenger and not to kill or cause GBH. They were convicted of murder but successfully appealed, a manslaughter conviction was substituted by the Court of Appeal and confirmed by the House of Lords. The House of Lords looked at risk and probability. A slight risk of death is not enough to infer intention: Lord Scarman stated the greater the probability that death or GBH would occur; the more likely that intention can be inferred, eg. if A cut B’s little finger is would not be very probable that death would occur, therefore A is unlikely to have intention. However, if A stabbed B in the chest, it is much more likely that death would result, therefore it is more likely that A had intention. In both cases the defendants were convicted by the juries and appealed, first to the Court of Appeal and then to the House of Lords. In each case the House of Lords quashed the convictions for murder and substituted a verdict of manslaughter. The reason being the trial judges had misdirected the jury. The following case established the Virtual Certainty test which should always be used in indirect intention situations.. R v Nedrick 1986 The defendant set fire to a house, killing a child. He claimed that his intention was to frighten the child’s mother and not to kill or cause GBH. Convicted of murder. Held (CA) Appeal allowed, manslaughter substituted. Where direct intention is not present then the following test should be put to the jury. A jury should return a verdict of murder only where they find that the defendant foresaw death or serious injury as a virtual certain consequence of his or her voluntary actions. R v Woolin 1998 (HL) D shook his 3-month-old son when he choked on his food and then threw him across the room, the child died, D had lied to the ambulance men and the police before admitting what happened. He claimed that he did not want his son to die. He was originally convicted of murder but the House of Lords reduced his conviction to manslaughter. The trial judge had misdirected the jury on the test to infer intention. The case has now confirmed the Nedrick test. It must now always be used when dealing with indirect intent situations. R v Matthew and Alleyne 2003 (CA) The defendants appealed against their conviction for murder following the death of a young man (a non-swimmer) whom they had thrown from a bridge into a river. The Court of Appeal affirmed the conviction, which it did not consider unsafe in the light of the evidence, but expressed concern that the Nedrick/Woollin evidential rule should not be treated as if it were a rule of law. A defendant’s foresight of virtually certain death does not automatically require the jury to find that he intended that result: it is merely evidence from which the jury may draw that conclusion.

Do Males and females Have Different Abilities When Estimating Size? Essay

The hypothesis is male can estimating size more exactly than female when they see the things far away from them. The result of the test supports the hypothesis. The problems that I faced are: people cannot stand at their place all the time during the test, the height of each people is different, and people cannot stay with the object with the same line. These problems caused my data error in the beginning of the experiment. This experiment is going to talk about â€Å"Do the people estimating size of the things different caused by the gender? † And the background of this science report is in the ancient time the man and the woman divided their work. The man often do things like hunting, the women do the work like planting. And why there is such a phenomenon? So, hunting exercised the vision of the male so they can shoot or hit animal accurately but planting do not help of the women vision. (SteadyHealth. com Discussion boards licensed and powered by SteadyHealth. com v4. 8. 0 Development supported by Rights Reserved  © 2004 – 2012) the hypothesis is male can estimating size more exactly than female when they see the things far away from them. Remain the distances, and the size of the object, 20 adults in the same age and the same vision as invariant tests and half of the people we tested are females. The material is a 90 cm3 size of cube. We make 1 person see and describe the size of the cube they saw when the distance between man and cube is 15 meters one by one. Then, keep the subject at the same place, move the cube let the distance to 12 meters and 8 meters.

Human Resource Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human Resource - Essay Example Staffing Plan for an Engineering Organization To begin with, I have to set down our goals and objectives after determining the kind of business that our organization will be in. The next step is to figure out and draw a strategy on how the organization is going to achieve those particular goals and objectives. In addition, I have to arrive at a decision with respect to the specific kind of jobs that are to be done and the specific people who are to be responsible in rendering their duties as they do the jobs. Finally as a Human Resource staff, I have to ensure that each member of staff’s knowledge, skills and talents have been matched to the jobs in question (Pandey 7). Ensuring that skilled employees can enable the organization meet its goals is one of the most crucial aspects. This can be ensured by ensuring that the supply and demand that match people’s component have been matched. Am supposed to come up with a profile for the members of staff in the organization. Th e profile entails an internal analysis that specifies workers and their respective skills. Apart from this, I will also need to develop an inventory report for the human resource.

The Family Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Family - Term Paper Example Functions of family: Functions of a family arise from the basic needs of humans. Every human being requires mental peace and physical satisfaction. Performing fornication outside marriage is forbidden on religious grounds. Therefore, a man and a woman start a new family when they get married. In the capacity of being husband and wife, the two can make love and satisfy their physical needs while respecting the standards of ethics, law and religion. The couple has babies with the passage of time which enlarges the family. Now, in the capacity of being a mother and a father, the two have certain defined responsibilities towards their children. In a nuclear family, father assumes the roles of bread earner for the family, whereas the mother is supposed to spend that money wisely for the wellbeing of the family. The children, in turn, have to respect their parents. As parents, people dedicate themselves to their children. Children give a meaning and purpose to the life of parents. They all live together as a family and their interests, objectives and everything in life is shared. Problems of family: In the contemporary age, families are facing a lot of problems. Some of the common problems of families are discussed below: 1. Unemployment: In the present age of economic recession, unemployment has become one of the biggest problems specially for people who are responsible to earn for the whole family. Unemployment makes one feel worthless and hurts one emotionally (Grace). Not only does it deprive the individual of the ability to meet the physiological needs, but also, it puts one into psychological distress. One can not pay for the health care, education and general wellbeing of the children. Quite often, unemployment becomes the fundamental cause of tension between the husband and wife and the two, may develop conflicts leading to divorce. 2. Dual working parents: In order to bear the increased cost of living in the contemporary age, in a vast majority of cases, bot h husband and wife need to work and earn. In the dual working parent families, parents mostly do not find sufficient time for proper nurturing and upbringing of their children. Children require time and attention from their parents in addition to their everyday needs related to money. Dual working parents have to remain away from their children for most part of the day, and the children may feel neglected. This can have, and often does have, very severe consequences. In the lack of parental supervision, children do not concentrate upon their studies, spend time with spoiled children, and may be exposed to violence. On the other hand, the parents are no less in trouble. After the whole day of work, parents need to relax, but they can hardly ever manage to with innumerable issues of children waiting to greet them as they appear on the gate of the home. 3. Childlessness: Many couples who start the families are suffering from childlessness. Childlessness is a problem that can be attribu ted to infertility of male, female or both. Also, some women get married too late to be medically fit to give birth to a child. Other families may not be suffering from childlessness, but they may have abnormalities in children which is no less distressful. Children are very important. Childlessness becomes a source of embarrassment for the couple and is a great blow to them (Rosenblatt and Hillabrant). Sometimes childlessness becom

Health Systems and Healthcare Systems Coursework - 5

Health Systems and Healthcare Systems - Coursework Example Key among the roles of the government is to provide every Nigerian access to basic healthcare facilities without discrimination. In Nigeria, primary health care services are available in both the rural and urban areas. The agencies provide basic care to citizens regardless of their class or status. There are various aspects supporting the evaluation of the primary health care services in Nigeria. Primary health care services also include training on prevailing health problem and techniques of controlling and preventing the problems. It ensures proper nutrition among citizens and promotion of food supply and childcare, family planning immunization and prevention against major infectious diseases. There is significant evidence in the health promotion interventions making active enhancement of human health care. Primary healthcare also concerns the satisfaction of health- related Millennium Development Goals among the marginalized group and poor members of the population. World health organization (WHO) applies health promotion techniques to health and related social system and various risk factors including disease and health issues. Organizations are concerned with improving the quality of life by performing health promotion services. Health promotion has crucial roles to play in fostering public health policies and health -supportive environments promoting positive social conditions and skills promoting healthy lifestyles (Boman & Isiaka 2015, p.1). World health organization supports the country in improving infrastructure for organizing planning and initiating multispectral health policies and programs in Nigeria. Health system concentrates towards health promotion promotions initiatives including and their capabilities geared towards promoting health. There are advocacy and social mobilization for policy in support of health

Channel conflict and resolution paper Assignment

Channel conflict and resolution paper - Assignment Example The emergence of electronic commerce has resulted in new business models that proffer marketers with opportunities such as access to diverse markets and reduced business expenses. E-commerce also comes with a bunch of challenges such as channel conflict in many businesses to date (Webb 96). The manner in which a business manages the aforesaid channel conflict is a pertinent aspect in its success. A marketing channel is a set of mutually dependent firms engaged delivering a product or service. Multiple channels arise when a company employs separate channels to sell the same products to markets differing in some important way. A multichannel conflict occurs when the producer/ manufacturer have established two or more different channels to sell the product to the same target market. For illustration, a motor company may have its own retail showroom, authorized dealers, and also sells online. Sometimes, the middlemen come in conflict with the manufacturer, employing both direct and indir ect channels of distribution. Such a conflict is known as the multichannel level conflict. A conflict may arise when a producer’s franchise prices its products lower than the middlemen, wholesaler or dealer. Conflicts can also arise when a producer sells a larger range of products through its own outlet than through the wholesaler or retailers (Webb 98). This discussion explores the role that suppliers play in managing conflicts between multiple channels. Suppliers can employ the marketing mix variables to manage multichannel conflict. Pricing Price is one of the prominent factor in which the most channel conflict is generated. Intermediaries closely watch what manufacturers or producers do through the online channel of distribution. Intermediaries express concerns regarding producers’ site and interpret it as a move to lessen their role with the customer. As a result, suppliers have started acknowledging that their channel partners will see and react to everything the y put on the internet. In order to reduce conflicts, suppliers have chosen not to place and offer discounts on the internet in a bid to reduce price related conflicts (Brennan,  Canning,  and McDowell, 316). Distribution An internet channel of distribution has a key limitation in that it does not have the ability to offer physical delivery of tangible products. Suppliers work in conjunction with other channel partners to carry out the fulfillment role of orders placed on the internet. For illustration, HP employs this aspect of involving channel partners to drive its online sales efforts. By involving other channel partners in the sale serves to manage and avoid cannibalization the channel. In addition, by involving channel partners, suppliers build trust and cooperation between the intermediaries and prevent unwarranted channel conflicts (Webb, 100). Promotion Promotion entails persuading customers to purchase a product. An internet channel of distribution gives suppliers a fav orable opportunity to promote their product offering directly to the end users. However, in order to avoid conflicts with other channels of distribution, suppliers are cautious on providing detailed product information along with search engines (Saxena 463). However, they choose not to accept orders online. Moreover, suppliers actively promote their channel partners on their websites, as well as permitting them to place their own adverts. Product Suppliers also manage their online product offering in a

International finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International finance - Essay Example By actually knowing the exchange rate of the other currency (one year from the base year), banks and individuals earn an effective interest rate rather than the simple interest rate that would have been earned if the funds are left deposited in the bank. Using the theory of purchasing power parity, explain how inflation impacts exchange rates. Based on the theory of purchasing power parity, what can we infer about the difference in inflation between Ireland and the USA during the year your lottery winnings were invested? First, in order to explain how inflation impact exchange rates, it is necessary to define purchasing power parity. The Dictionary of Economics defines purchasing power parity as â€Å"a theory which states that the exchange rate between one currency and another is in equilibrium when their domestic purchasing powers at that rate of exchange are equivalent†. Since after one year, the rate of exchange became US$1 = Euro 1.30, there was a 4 per cent inflation in Ireland which caused a devaluation in their exchange rate. The inflation rate was computed as follows: (1.30 – 1.20)/1.20. While there was no mention of any change in exchange rate in the US, it can be inferred that there was no inflation increase. Therefore, the value of its currency remained the

Small business fianical assignment Setting up a Business

Small business fianical Setting up a Business - Assignment Example With a population density of 1,419 people per square kilometer, the retail store will be run by 14 members of staff (10 employees and 4 directors). Such a team of dedicated employees will ensure that all the needs of the prospective customers are catered for. Customer loyalty will be maintained for future plans of expanding the business into a corporation. As a small business, the registration requirements are minimal. We will have to apply for a business license from the Municipal Government. The business license would ascertain that our business is legitimate and acceptable by the national government (Morris, p. 27). All the inventory items will be taxed under the Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) requirements for all sales in Canada. All goods have indirect tax attached to their price. As a small business, our liability to the HST requirements will be through the indirect tax imposed on all goods. However, the tax burden will be passed to the final consumers of the goods and services. They will have to cater for the indirect tax burden through the price charged. The municipal government will require that we pay monthly municipal tax. Such a tax is a requirement for all businesses. The tax will be used to cater for the well-being of the municipality. The fresh farm produce will be inspected by the public health department to ensure that the food commodities are fit for consumption. We will be required to have a certificate of quality check from the same department. If the business were a corporation, there would be significant set-up and filing changes as required by the central government. Setting up a corporation would require the following documents (Morris, p. 95); The corporation will be required to fill tax returns forms. All the sales that the corporation will make will be taxed according to the Harmonized Sales Tax requirements in Canada. In addition, the corporation will be required to fill the following

Comparisons And Differences In Intention By The 1960s& 1990s Musicians Essay

Comparisons And Differences In Intention By The 1960s& 1990s Musicians - Essay Example He mainly focused on things that touch people around him and then wrote good lyrics or had them written down by good songwriters for him to sing. He was born in Gary in 1958, at a place called Gary, Indiana in the United States. His father, Joseph Jackson was a guitarist but had to give up following his marriage. Michael Jackson had several nicknames e.g. The Gloved One, Wacko Jacko, MJ and King of Pop. Apart from entertaining through singing, he also had dancing skills which gave a trademark. In his black shoes, white socks and trousers above heel, he showcase the moonlight walk style. His hit 'heal the world' resulted to a Foundation which helped collect funds to purchase foods medical supplies to the then war torn Sarajevo, running of immunization drug abuse educational programmes ,paying child's liver transplants in Hungary. He also did 'We are the world' with Lionel Richie, a co-writer and other musicians like Stevie Wonder. The song was a call to everyone in the world to come o ut and give aid to people in Africa. The income generated was used in buying essential necessities for people in Africa mainly. Former America's president Ronald Reagan wanted to award him with a Humanitarian Rights Award together with other two but, a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court advised against the whole idea, saying it was much worthy of a pop star. His music also educated people, black or white was a song done to inform that skin color did not really matter, whether black or white, there was an equal access to rights at that time when there was tension between blacks &whites. Bellie jean was a ballad, telling a story about how a certain guy impregnated a particular lady and later on denied it. These are things that do happen day in day out to people we know in our societies. It plays the role of an eye-opener (Michael Jackson.com, 2008). Using different song themes, a wide range of ideas were spread to all parts of the world.'Beat it' was used in commercials against drunk driving. The intentional was to evoke changes in lifestyles, warn of the likely dangers and the same time bring fun through the classical beats. 'Jacko'as he was sometimes referred to remains to be one of the greatest artists of all times. As a general expectation of a musician, he did perform songs in praise of women who got him charmed such as you rock my world. Michael Jackson was able to achieve a lot through music. He was the first solo artist to have no.1 hits and albums in the billboard charts. As a result this won him fame and recognition globally. He managed to appear in the Guinness Book of Records as one of the best singers/dancer. When the U.S invaded Iraq, MJ decided to do an anti-war song to show his dislike of the act and as well represent others with the same opinion. The song title was we've had enough. Though little was done about the invasion, at least it showed that people were watching or rather following (Michael Jackson.com, 2008). The second artist am going to highlight about is Stevie Wonder, I chose because of his uniqueness and the ability to sing& play an instrument,

Withholding and withdrawal of Medical treatment decisions from Case Study

Withholding and withdrawal of Medical treatment decisions from Children and neonates - Case Study Example Parents, doctors, the health care team have a common goal in ensuring good health and sustaining the life of children and neonates. Although advanced technology makes it possible to prolong life, prolonging life beyond a meaningful point in some neonatal and children's cases involves making difficult decisions on when and how life sustaining treatment is to be withheld or withdrawn. The Ethics Advisory Committee of the Royal College of Pediatrics and Child Health (EAC - RCPCH) has defined five categories in which the withholding or withdrawal of life sustaining medical treatment can be done.With holding or withdrawing does not even mean that the child will receive no care. Such a decision is followed by palliative care for the child. The withholding and withdrawing decisions is made by only experienced senior doctors. Clinical situations of these decisions include Non-resuscitation of a baby at birth with congenital abnormalities like anencephaly, making the child incompatible for su rvival; Non- resuscitation of a baby born with a gestational period of twenty three weeks or less making the baby neurologically impaired; withdrawal of ventilation from the baby with birth asphyxia leading to brain damage.The frequency of selective non treatment of extremely premature, critically or mal formed infants in Level III intensive care nursery (ICU) and the reasons documented by neonatologists for their decisions to withdraw or with hold life support has been well documented (Wall, 1997). They reviewed all the medical records of 165 infants who died at a level III (ICN) during 3 years. One hundred and eight infant deaths were found to be due to withdrawal of life support and thirteen deaths due to withhold of treatment. End of life decisions in new born with incurable diseases are difficult for pediatricians. In Netherlands, deliberate ending of life can be acceptable choice if a life full of severe and sustained suffering that cannot be relieved by any other means is expected of the child (Verhagen 2005). During a study for the period from January 1988 through December 1991, of 529 neonates admitted in Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, 524 had been found dead of which 28 were due to the disease and 24 cases due to withdrawn or withheld treatment. In 15 of the 24, treatment was withdrawn due to severe congenital anomalies; in 9 of the 24, treatment was withdrawn because of serious complications. But in all the cases withdrawal was done unanimously after lengthy discussions between doctors, nurses and the parents (Hazebroek, 1993). Withdrawal of treatment in pediatric intensive care units accounts for between 43% and 72% of deaths in U.K (Mcmillan 2000). The Law:- All such professional decisions are done within the framework of law. The children Act (England and Wales 1989) safeguard the children's welfare. The Act also introduces the concept of parental responsibility. A number of judgments on withholding or withdrawing life sustaining treatment have proved that there is no obligation on part of the doctors to give treatment which is futile and burdensome and such a treatment could be treated as an assault. They have also given enough scope for the treatment goals to be changed in case of a dying child. These judgments have legalized the withdrawal of feeding and medical treatment In such cases in the best interests of the children. Withdrawal of life sustaining treatment in appropriate cases is not active killing, nor does it breach the article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Decision Making: Initially the medical team must wait for enough information about the clinical status of the child. The decision making process involves all members of the Health Care Team and the parents. In practice, a decision to withdraw treatment is usually a matter of consensus. However such major decisions always require a second opinion, legal as well as clinical.

Chinese culture Essay Example for Free

Chinese culture Essay William Faulkner once said that â€Å"The past is not dead. In fact, its not even past† and he could have speaking about the history of porcelain painting in China. The history of this ancient art lives and breathes in every porcelain plate we touch and eat off of. It lives and breathes in the small villages in China which cling to the past as much as they want to move into the future. We reach the beautiful of city of Yi-xing in the early morning hours. Early enough that the streets were empty and the sun was just peaking through the rows and rows of tea leaves. The blend of organic green and sandy orange reminded me of the beaches of California I had visited at a child. The city of Yi-ing is the home of several tea plantations which stretch as far as the eye can see. During the day the rows of teas are cluttered with the presence of severals humans which look out of place in the purely green surroundings. If you head south through the beautiful mountains, which look more like hills to me, you reach a deep and clear lake. This lake, Lake Taihu, is where Lu Yu once lived when he wrote his now infamous book about the magic of tea and its role in Chinese culture. Tea porcelain are intimately linked in Chinese culture. Each competing with the other to see which is older and more valued. Upon a close examination of the history it is hard to separate the two. The Chinese Porcelain factory sits on the far edge of the city of Yi-ing and is a striking contrast to the hills and valleys that lay in front of it and beyond it. It is interesting to see the coupling of industrialization and farming in a country which in some places seems oddly untouched by civilization and in other devastated by the pollution from manufacturers and cars. The story of Chinese Porcelain is one of perseverance and beyond that of innovation. Chinese ceramic and porcelain reveal the resourcefulness of Chinese artisans. They demonstrate in their pieces, which are found enclosed in glass in the lobby area of the factory, how they utilized the materials that they had and turned them into pieces of pottery that have with stood the test of time. In the Yuan and Mind dynasties, Chinese porcelain makers combined porcelain stone with kaolin however kaolin was extremely hard to work with. It was then that Chinese porcelain makers discovered that if you ground kaolin and then added water a malleable substance was created with could be kneaded into porcelain stone. This could easily be formed into pots and vases on the potters wheel. During the drying processes a knife is used to slice excess porcelain from the pottery which accounts for the delicate thinness of Chinese Porcelain. To my surprise once we went into the factory the very same techniques were being used. Centuries later modern Chinese artisans were paying homage to their centuries old mentors by building pottery in the same fashion. The twist is that the new pottery produced in these factories are brightly colored by hand with a small paint brush. The craftsmanship is perfect and the people here, who are obviously under paid and living in less then optimal condition, absolutely enjoy what they do. They take pride in every piece they make and are more then willing to share their skills with you. Our tour guide informed us that many of the kilns in use at the factory were hundreds of years old. Apparently once a large kiln is established it can be used for hundreds of years. The art of preparing clay and the process which follows is a craft which is passed down again and again from generation to generation. This is why visitors can find subtle differences in glazing processes as well as firing processes throughout the villages and cities in China. Porcelain is more then just a container used for tea or food stuff. The art displayed on pieces of Chinese Porcelain reveal the entire history of the Chinese people. From myths to fears, historic battles and even home comings. Pottery and porcelain pieces exported during these periods are an excellent source of research materials on the history of Chinas communications, trade, and economic relations with other countries. My trip to city of Yi-ing was memorable for several reasons but most importantly I was reminded of the value of craft within a society. I will never forget the feel of Chinese Porcelain on my fingertips. The knowledge that something that delicate could last for centuries was truly symbolic of the struggle and political strife that the Chinese people have dealt with since its birth. Art is not merely for decoration, entertainment, or even functionality. It serves a much more important purpose. Through art we can see the evolution and development of not just a country like China but the spirit and souls of the people who make their homes and keep their families in those counties.

Literature Review Tuberculosis Article Health And Social Care Essay

Literature Review Tuberculosis Article Health And Social Care Essay According to the World Health Organization, a third of the worlds population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (World Health Organization). New cases were estimated to number 9.4 million with 1.8 million deaths in 2008 (Thomas). Gary Maartens and Robert J. Wilkinson published a review in the December, 2007 issue of The Lancet that outlines the current condition of tuberculosis(TB) in the world today. Specifically, the authors report on the status of research, diagnostic techniques, treatment options and the epidemic of HIV-associated tuberculosis in Africa. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacterial causative agent of a disease that has been a leading cause of death for much of earths history and still is for many developing countries. Maarten and Wilkinson noted recent regional changes in the incidence of TB with improvements made in many regions while incidence in sub-Saharan Africa has increased. This increase is correlated with the HIV epidemic in Africa and presents complex challenges in the task of controlling TB. In addition to HIV, multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of tuberculosis account for increasing numbers of new cases and recurrent disease in previously treated patients. The authors state that 4% of patients worldwide have a multidrug-resistant strain. Included in that percentage are patients with XDR strains. One reported study of a tuberculosis outbreak in HIV-infected individuals showed that 24% of those patients had XDR strains and this resulted in a 98% fatality rate (52 of 53 patients) . Genetic analysis of the bacterium indicated that transmission of the TB had been recent and it was noted that two-thirds of the affected patients had been hospitalized in the two years prior. The concern is that they may have acquired the XDR strain of TB while hospitalized, highlighting the need for better treatments and more precaution when treating these patients. Without improvements in rapid diagnosis and treatment, the incidence of drug-resistant strains will continue to rise. Genomic analysis has become an important tool in understanding microorganisms and Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been extensively studied and its genes have been sequenced. Analysis conducted on 875 different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from 80 countries has resulted in the discovery of six distinct lineages of TB that seem to have adaptations to specific populations of humans. As an example, the east African-Asian strain affects people of Indian origin, regardless of where they currently live. Another strain, W/Beijing, has less specificity, affecting people all over the world, but it also seems to be more virulent. Each of these strains is the result of mutations in the DNA of the bacterium. Different strains of TB have different mechanisms which allow them to modulate or suppress the immune system response. Many of these mechanisms have to do with the molecules that comprise the mycobacterial cell wall such as phenolic glycolipids. Two large studies have identified that membrane-associated proteins, molecular transporters, and ion channels play a vital role in the virulence of TB. These discoveries not only help scientists better understand the pathogenesis of tuberculosis; they also provide new targets for treatment. In addition to the genetics of the bacteria, the genetic makeup of the host is critical. Specific receptors on human macrophages recognize specific molecules of the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and trigger cellular signaling cascades that can result in greater host resistance or increased susceptibility to TB. Two of the receptors involved have a role in vitamin D activation and a deficiency of this vitamin has been noted in some tuberculosis cases, leading the authors to speculate about the possibility of vitamin D supplementation for prevention. Mutations in one of these cellular signaling pathways were shown in a series of studies to predispose individuals to severe atypical mycobacterial infections. This line of inquiry, identifying the specific genetic mutations that give rise to virulence factors in the bacteria or greater susceptibility in the host, could lead to huge advancements in the understanding and eventual eradication of TB, but the authors point out that th ese studies would need to be extensive, which equates to expensive. Diagnosis and treatment for tuberculosis hasnt significantly changed in decades. Microscopic analysis and bacterial culturing are the standard protocols used to detect a TB infection, but these techniques have drawbacks, the most obvious being the time and labor involved in culturing. Maarten and Wilkinson state the obvious by expressing a desire for a more sensitive test that is rapid and affordable. A few emerging candidates are discussed, including nucleic-acid amplification tests and enzyme-linked immunospot analysis (ELISpot analysis). Nucleic-acid amplification tests have not proven to be significantly better at identifying TB. They are also expensive and require specialized equipment, making them unsuitable for use in most developing countries with limited resources. The ELISpot analysis, however, has promise in that it shows greater sensitivity and specificity than the tuberculosis skin test (TST), particularly in differentiating between exposure to TB and an active infection . In addition to assessing whether a patient is dealing with a tuberculosis infection, it is critical to know whether the strain of TB is drug-resistant. Current methods of determining drug resistance require 6-8 weeks, but microscopic analysis of liquid culture growth can be done within 10 days and has the advantages of being inexpensive and easily available, even to locations with limited resources. HIV infection further complicates diagnosis of tuberculosis and a determination is frequently made based solely on clinical symptoms and x-rays. This can lead to faster treatment, but could also be a contributing factor in the creation of resistant strains. Current methods of treatment involve a cocktail of medications taken for at least six months. This protocol typically has good results, even in patients with HIV. The treatment strategy utilized internationally is called directly observed treatment short course (DOTS). This method of control has contributed to gains made in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, but still has many shortcomings. The authors advocate a combined approach and point to very high adherence rates for HIV treatments with a more patient centered approach, which empowers the patient to take care of themselves rather than reporting to a clinic to be observed taking a medication. The medications used to treat TB have changed very little and new medications are desperately needed, especially in light of the increase in drug-resistant strains. A commonly used medication, rifamycin is proving to be less effective in patients with HIV due to the development of resistance or because of some metabolic process reducing the concentration of the medication in their bodies. Fluoroquinolones have been shown to be effective but seem to be prone to rapid development of resistance and toxicity. The authors report on two new antimycobaterial drugs that have novel mechanisms of action and are in the process of testing. The complications of treating patients with HIV and TB are many. Most of the symptoms of TB are due to immune response (immunopathological), but the immune systems of HIV patients are already suppressed. The medications to treat TB can further suppress the immune response leading to an increase in viral load and the possibility of more opportunistic infections. In addition, many of these medications have proven to be hepatotoxic, which HIV patients are even less equipped to handle. Complications can also include paradoxical deterioration whereby the treatment of HIV results in a worsening of TB symptoms. The important point is that more research is required to understand the immune system functionality in concurrent infections of TB and HIV. The treatment of latent infections is aimed at preventing these infections from becoming active, particularly in immunocompromised patients. The most common strategy is a 6-12 month course of isoniazid. Although widely used, this treatment carries the same risks of medication resistance and hepatotoxicity as other TB drugs. Additional information on the physiology of latent infections could lead to better drugs and better strategies for treatment. Vaccination, which is widely available in Europe, but not used in the United States, has shown some efficacy in preventing severe TB infections in children, but the length and strength of protection is in question. Tuberculosis is still transmitted, allowing the continued spread of the bacteria. Novel vaccines are being tested and a few show promise to provide better protection. The authors reiterate the need for large, long term studies. Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing an epidemic of HIV-associated tuberculosis. The capacity to manage this epidemic is severely hindered by socioeconomic, medical infrastructure, and political issues. Treating with antiretrovirals has reduced the number of cases of tuberculosis, but HIV patients are still much more likely to develop tuberculosis. The best preventative measure seems to be to reduce the incidence of HIV and the best treatment strategy is to identify and treat active tuberculosis. Treating both HIV and tuberculosis concurrently poses special problems. Many of the drugs have potentially negative interactions, either reducing efficacy or increasing toxicity. In addition, there is the possibility of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. This disorder manifests as a worsening of TB symptoms in a patient that was improving, likely due to an improved immune response resulting from treatment of HIV. In essence, successful treatment of HIV results in an escalation of tub erculosis symptoms. Steroids used to treat the TB have some success, but at the risk of increased complications from HIV. There is a fine line in concurrently treating these diseases and much more to understand about it. This article serves both as a reminder of the enormity of the problems associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and as a call to arms for more research. With a third of the worlds population affected, it is extremely surprising that we dont have a symbol, a color, a celebrity backed telethon with accompanying song, or a three-day walk to raise awareness and money for research. I suppose part of the problem is that the problem is over there and so we in America are less aware. Preventing the spread of the bacteria seems to be the best option for a long term reduction in incidence, and a new vaccine would seem to be the logical next step. In reading the article, it seems the challenges in treating tuberculosis are almost overwhelming. Tuberculosis lives and multiplies in the macrophages of the human immune system, the very cells that would normally play a key role in eradication of a bacterial infection. This uncommon arrangement, in addition to the complexity of the interactions bet ween humans and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is key to understanding the disease in the hope of finding better solutions. If we could find a way to induce the bodys immune systems to attack the bacteria itself without the formation of tubercles or other negative effects, that would be an ideal solution. If that is not possible, we need to find those mechanisms or characteristics that are unique to the bacterium or its pathogenesis and create a drug to act on those. The challenges are many. The authors repeatedly used the term political will and it seems that this may be the key to resolving the problem of tuberculosis. While the article serves the purposes of reminding and rallying, it seems to be written for those already familiar with the disease and is poorly organized. The authors seem to hopscotch about with very little in the way of transition, making it difficult for a novice to assimilate the information. It is a good review of the current direction, but without the foundatio nal information required to understand what it means.

The Job Satisfaction Definition Psychology Essay

The Job Satisfaction Definition Psychology Essay Job satisfaction, insimple words is an individuals emotional reaction to the job itself. It is a set of favorable or unfavorable feelings with which the employees view their work. When a person says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really like his job feels good about it and values his job highly. According to E.A. Locke, job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job satisfaction is the amount of pleasure or contentment associated with a job -if you like your job intensely you will experience job dissatisfaction.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Andrew Bin Job satisfaction is the set of favourable or unfavourable feelings  with employees view their work.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Keith Davis and Newstrom According to Fieldman and Arnold, Job satisfaction will be defined as the amount of the overall positive effort or (feelings) that individuals have towards their job Job satisfaction is the mental feeling of favorableness which an individual has about his job. So it is one of the important factors which have drawn attention of managers in the organization. Benefits of job satisfaction study Job satisfaction study can produce positive, neutral and negative results. The importance of the study is explained below. (1) The study informs the management about the level of satisfaction of the employees in the various services offered to them by the organization. (2)Job satisfaction study is a useful for identifying related problems, for assessing the response of the employees to various alternatives and also for encouraging managers to modify their original plans approximately. (3) Job satisfaction study is a useful way to determine certain training needs. (4) The study is tangible expression of managements interest in employee welfare which gives employees a reason to feel better towards management. EFFECT OF LOW JOB SATISFACTION Job satisfaction has a variety of effects these effects are. High turnover of employees. High absenteeism. Tardiness. Low employee performance. High turnover of employees Low satisfaction is associated with high employee turnover. Employee turnover means the proportion of employees leaving an organization. Most satisfied employees are less likely to think about quitting and searching for a new job or announce their intention to quit and thus one more likely to stay with their employer longer. Employee turnover has several negative consequences especially if the turnover rate is high. Difficult to replace derived employees. Direct and indirect costs to the organization since replacing workers are expensive. The feeling of demoralization because of the loss of valued Co-workers. Both work and social patterns may be disrupted until replacements are found. The organizations reputation in the community may suffer. High absenteeism Absenteeism refers to the frequency of absence of a job holder from the workplace either unexcused absence due to some avoidable reasons or long absence due to some unavoidable reasons. Tardiness The impact of low job satisfaction is tardiness. A tardy employee is one who arrives at work late. Tardiness is a type of short period absenteeism ranging from a few minutes to several hours for each event and it is another way in which employees. Withdraw from active involvement in the organization. it may impede the timely completion of work and disrupt productive relationship with Co-workers. A pattern of tardiness is often a symptom of negative attitude requiring managerial attention. Low employee performance If the rewards are seen as fair and equitable the improved satisfaction develops because employees feel that they are receiving rewards in proportion to higher performance. On the other hand if rewards are seen as inadequate for ones level of satisfaction leads to either great or lesser commitment which affects efforts and eventually the performance. Article: 1 WORK TEAMS AND JOB SATIFACTION Authors Laura Newmark, Management Consultant, Boone, NC, USA Jerry W. Koehler, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA Thomas W. Philippe, St. Petersburg College, St Petersburg FL, USA Source: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 8, Number 2, 2008 One of the most significant changes in modern organizations over the past few decades has been the increased use of work teams. Many organizations have embraced beliefs that people are untapped resources, that people who do the work are in the best position to improve the organizational processes, and the most effective method to utilize human resources is to form work teams. Even though many organizations have adopted the team approach, it still remains to be seen whether or not work teams positively affect organization members. Although there is Ample evidence that organizations have improved their quality and productivity by utilizing work teams, the overall affects teams have on the organization and organization members is still uncertain. There has not been sufficient research on the positive or negative affects of work teams. The definition of work teams accommodates the use of many labels. It includes autonomous work teams, semiautonomous work teams, self managed teams, process-improvement teams, self-determining teams, cross-functional teams, quality circles, etc. There are five themes that emerge from qualitative analysis they are (1)commitment, attitude, and willingness within team; (2)Knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience of team members; (3) team work and ability to work as a team; (4) internal team leadership (5) communication and trust within the team. In fact, the affect was just the opposite; people who did not work in a team had significantly higher job satisfaction than team members. The results indicate that working on teams may not have a positive affect on team member job satisfaction. This was a significant finding since job satisfaction has long been a significant variable for determining organizational effectiveness. Since many organizations are moving to team based organizations, the data indicates that this movement may cause organizations to experience significant problems in implementing teams, particularly in the area of job satisfaction. Article: 2 JOB SATISFACTION AND RETENTION STRATEGIES Author Safdar Rehman Director (HR), Super Solutions Consultancy, Canada Source: Global Business and Management Research: An International Journal (2012) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Vol. 4, No. 1 Phillips, (1998) and Meglino, Ravlin, De Nisi, (2000) studied that precise and pragmatic job information during the recruitment and selection process was linked with positive work outcomes like job satisfaction, low turnover and enhanced job performance. Applicants who felt a better fit between their knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA) and their job requirements were likely to accept a job offer. Campion (1991) found that inescapable turnover was characteristically viewed as critical to an organization. The notion that turnover decreases organizational performance was supported by the most of researchers. Mobley (1982) suggested That, turnover might interrupt job performance when an employee who intended to leave became less efficient and effective. Shaw, Gupta, Delery, 2002 found empirically that voluntary turnover was associated with the inferior organizational performance. Other researchers suggested that turnover could improve performance. One probable advantage of turnover was the exclusion of poor performing employees. Furthermore, Staw et al; (1986) proposed that turnover might enhance performance if most of the turnover was by employees with longer or very short tenure. Article: 3 JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK LIFE BALANCE Author Millicent F. Nelson, Middle Tennessee State University Richard J. Tarpey, Middle Tennessee State University Source: Academy of Health Care Management Journal, Volume 6, Number 1, 2010 Work-family conflict studies have also indicated that there is a difference in levels of work-family conflict perception between males and females. Several of these studies have also indicated that the majority of pressure females experience comes from family demands rather than work demands especially when the family has children. One possible explanation is that a larger portion of family role tasks that are time constrained typically falls on the female of the family. While males usually assume responsibility for tasks such as home maintenance, females normally are responsible for tasks that must be done on a regular basis regardless of the quantity or pressures of work demands. Therefore, while many generally male dominated family tasks can be put off if work demands increase, the same is not true for the female dominated tasks such as laundry, cooking, or direct child care. Therefore, the propensity for females to experience work-family conflict is high due to irregular, inflexible or long work hours, potential limited choice in work schedules, and personal or family demands. Additionally, with families can experience more demanding family role tasks in addition to their potentially high demand work role tasks causing a further perception of a lack of balance. The implications of the work schedule on an individuals ability to achieve a work-family balance are clear and demonstrated in previous studies. An employees negative perception of a work schedule should increase the potential for the existence of work-family conflict through the perception of the scheduled hours as too excessive, irregular, or inflexible. THEORIES OF JOB SATISFACTION The main theoretical approaches to job satisfaction are given below: 1. Need Fulfillment Theory According to this theory a person is satisfied when he gets from his job what he wants. In other words, job satisfaction will vary directly with the extend to which those needs of an individual which can be satisfied actually. Thus, job satisfaction is positively related to the degree to which ones needs are fulfilled. 2. Equity Theory Under this theory, it is believed that a persons job satisfaction depends upon his perceived equity as determined by his input -output balance in comparison with the input -output balance of others. Every individual compares his rewards with those of a reference group. If he feels his rewards are equitable in comparison with others doing similar work, he feels satisfied. Job satisfaction is thus a function of the degree to which job characteristics meet the desires of the reference group. Equity theory takes into account not only the needs of an individual but also the opinion of the reference group to which the individual looks for guidance. 3. Two-factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory) Frederick Herzbergs Two-factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employees motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate. Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals (Hoskinson, Porter, Wrench, p.  133). Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions. While Hertzbergs model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman Oldham suggesting that Hertzbergs original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artefact. Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors. Finally, the model has been criticized in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured. 4. Discrepancy theory The concept of discrepancy theory explains the ultimate source of anxiety and dejection. An individual, who has not fulfilled his responsibility feels the sense of anxiety and regret for not performing well, they will also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopes and aspirations. According to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and responsibilities for a particular function, over a time period, and if they fail to fulfil those obligations then they are punished. Over time, these duties and obligations consolidate to form an abstracted set of principles, designated as a self-guide. Agitation and anxiety are the main responses when an individual fails to achieve the obligation or responsibility This theory also explains that if achievement of the obligations is obtained then the reward can be praise, approval, or love. These achievements and aspirations also form an abstracted set of principles, referred to as the ideal self guide. When the individual fails to obtain these rewards, they begin to have feelings of dejection, disappointment, or even depression 5.Equity Discrepancy Theory This is a combination ofequity and discrepancy theories. Under this theory, satisfaction is defined as the difference between the outcomes that one perceives he actually received and outcomes that one feels he should receive in comparison with others. When the individual feels that what he actually received is equal to what he perceives he should receive, there is satisfaction. This model reveals that a persons perception of what he should receive is influenced by the input and output of others. 6. Opponent process theory According to opponent process theory,  emotional events, such as criticisms or rewards, elicits two sets of processes. Primary processes give way to emotions that are steady with the event in question. Events that seem negative in manner will give rise to the feelings of stress or anxiety. Events that are positive give rise to the feeling of content or relaxation. The other process is the opponent process, which induces feelings that contradict the feelings in the primary processes. Events that are negative give rise to feelings of relaxation while events that are positive give rise to feelings of anxiety. A variety of explanations have been suggested to explain the uniformity of mood or satisfaction. This theory shows that if you try to enhance the mood of individual it will more likely fail in doing so. The opponent process theory was formulated to explain these patterns of observations. 7.Social Reference group theory Reference group defined the way an individual look at the world. According to this theory job satisfaction occurs when job meets   the interest, desire and requirements of a persons reference group .in   other word, job satisfaction is a function   of the degree to which the job meets the approval of the group to which the individual looks for guidance in evaluating the world and defining social reality. The social reference group theory is similar to the need fulfilment theory  except that it takes into account not the desires need and interest of the given individual but rather the point of view and opinion of the group to whom the individual looks for guidance. This theory an incomplete explanation to the extent some people are independent of group opinions and group pressure.

The Theory of Optimum Currency Areas Essay -- Eurozone Countries, Comm

The theory of optimum currency areas (OCA) explores the conditions under which a common currency can maximize the economic efficiency of a region. It strives to identify the essential characteristics for forming a common currency zone as well as its possible costs and benefits. The research has also provided much insight into the area of optimum exchange rate management. The phrase ‘optimum currency area’ was first coined by Mundell in 1961 in his seminal paper entitled â€Å"A Theory of Optimum Currency Areas†. Since then the theory has seen little development and the subject area has often lacked attention from economists. However, the formation of a European Monetary Union (EMU) has stimulated a resurgence of interest in the topic. (Citation) The creation of the EMU has been an ambition of the European Union (EU) since the late 1960s. However, the timeline for achieving the EMU and a common currency was not agreed upon until the signing of the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. The treaty eliminated the national barriers to the movement of goods, labour and capital within the EU, as well as planning the creation of the euro currency and the European Central Bank. (Bean, 1992) The euro was finally adopted on the 1st Dec 1999 by eleven of the EU countries - as well as the Vatican, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino - and has subsequently been expanded further to Greece, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia, Montenegro and Estonia. (Citation) When Mundell introduced the OCA theory, the EMU was not a consideration and it was merely seen as an academic question. Mundell began by defining a currency area as â€Å"a domain within which exchange rates are fixed† and posed the prominent question â€Å"What is the appropriate domain of a currency area?†. To tackl... ...f incomes and extent of trade amoung the members. The OCA line is downward sloping as the advantages of a common currency depend positively on trade and negatively on income correlation. The higher and further right the points are the more benefitial a common currency would be. Points that are low and left should float their own individual currency. He declared that a common currency for Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and Netherlands would be advantageous but would be a hindrance for Europe as a whole. However, Frankel outlined that â€Å"The OCA Criterion Might Be Satisfied Ex Post, Even If Not Ex Ante†. He expanded by stating that through the formation of a common currency area countries that were below the OCA line could end up above it. Frankel indentified this would happen due to increased trade integration which causes a higher income correlation. (Frankel, 1999)

Caring :: essays research papers

Since I was a little girl, I have been giving care to others. It started when I was nine years old. My grandmother, who was a heavy smoker, developed cancer and became very sick.. It got to the point where she received home hospice care because nothing more could be done for her in the hospitals. â€Å"Hospice is a specialized type of medical care for people who have advanced or life-limiting illness. This care is provided by a team of individuals who care for patients and families in their homes† (1). It basically provides the patient with care in the comfort of their home. A hospital bed was set up in our home where she spent her last days. She was hooked up to an I.V. where she would receive daily doses of morphine, a strong drug ment to ease the pain of the terminally ill. I would check on her frequently, and even learned how to program the machine that released her morphine.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Soon after my grandmother died, my mom started getting sick. When she was born, she was born with a heart condition. Her heart had a â€Å"hole† in it and it was positioned wrong in her chest. In fact, it was said by doctors that because of her abnormal heart condition, she wouldn’t live past the age of six. She was also partially blind in her left eye, which restricted her from driving. As she got older and older, her heart grew weaker and weaker. At the age of 35 years old, she had a pacemaker surgically implanted in her chest. A pacemaker is a battery-powered case that assists the heart in beating. An incision is made and a pocket is formed in the area overlying the muscle on the outside of the chest wall. â€Å"Most are placed to prevent the heart from going to slow. This happens because there is no cell in the heart that will beat fast enough to maintain proper function or because the electrical pathway, which allows impulses to spread to the necessary parts of the heart muscle is damaged.†(2). Eventually, even the pacemaker didn’t help. Her heart couldn’t handle the aging process, and it became more and more difficult for her to do simple, everyday activities. Even walking became a chore. I would do my part by helping out at home with the daily chores and push her around in her wheelchair whenever we went places.

Level of Stress Among Call Centre Employees Essay

Level of Stress among Call Centre Employees Submission date: 8th January, 2008 Submitted By: Ayesha Khalid Ayesha Sarfaraz Nazool-e-Tabassum Saira Khan Mussaffa Butt Submitted to Dr. Farah Malik Associate Professor Department of Psychology Government College University Lahore Introduction Stress is used as a general label for a vast complex, interdisciplinary area of interest and study, much of which is health related. Most often stress is related to personal discomfort associated with an over demanding or distressinglifestyle situation (Adams & Bromley, 1998) stress is a part of everyday life, we experience stress each day, although it is acknowledged that the degree of stress varies considerably depending on the complexity of the situation and availability of support. For some, the stress is manageable and work or home life is not affected. For others, however, the stress reaches a critical point where there may be a need for medical or psychiatric assistance (Weiten, 2001). The causes of stress can include any event or occurrence that a person considers a threat to his or her coping strategies or resources. Researchers generally agree that a certain degree of stress is a normal part of a living organism’s response to the inevitable changes in its physical or social environment, and that positive, as well as negative, events can generate stress as well as negative occurrences (Frey, 2002). There can be innumerable stress factors since different individuals react differently to the samestress conditions. Extreme stress situations for an individual may prove to be mild for another,for yet another person the situations might not qualify as stressing at all. (http://www. lifepositive. com/stress. html). The fact that women report and exhibit higher level of psychological distress than men has been explained in three major ways. The methodological artifact explanation suggests that women are socialized to be more expressive and therefore will admit more emotional symptoms than men in response to the standard psychological stress (Frey, 2002). The stress exposure argument suggests that women face more stressor in general or more severe, persistent stressors than men. Whereas the vulnerability argument suggest that women lack coping resources such as high self esteem, a sense of mastery or appropriate coping strategies for handling the stressors to which they are exposed. Newman (1984 c. f. Eckenrode, 1991) suggested that women over report minor symptoms that inflate over all distress scores (Eller, 2000). Stress in humans in general results from interactions between persons and their environment that are perceived as straining or exceeding their adaptive capacities and threatening their well-being. The element of perception indicates that human stress responses reflect differences in personality, as well as differences in physical strength or general health (Frey, 2002). Stress is often termed asa twentieth century syndrome, born out of man’s race towards modern progress and its ensuingcomplexities. For that matter, causes such as a simple flight delay to managing a teenage child athome can put you under stress. Listing the causes of stress is tricky yet replete with practical diversity (http://www. lifepositive. com/stress. html). General cause of stress include primarily, Threat; a perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed. This can include physical threats, social threats, financial threat, and so on. Fear; Fear leads to imagined outcomes, which are the real source of stress. Uncertainty; When people are not certain, they are unable to predict, and hence feel they are not in control, and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty (http://www. workstress. net/causes. htm). Apart from certain general causes another reason is cognitive dissonance; it is when there is a gap between what people do and what they think, then the outcome experience is cognitive dissonance, which is felt as stress.

Economic Globalization and Civil War Essay

Researchers Katherine Barbieri and Rafael Reuveny attempt through their study on economic globalization and civil war to find the relation, if any, between the effects of globalization and the occurrence of civil wars in developing countries. Their hypothesis is that globalization has positive effects on developing countries, causing them to have more stability and become less likely to erupt in civil war. Using the examples of 74 civil wars spanning the years of 1970-1999, the researchers compared variables of globalization including international trade, foreign direct investment, foreign portfolio investment, and internet use against periods of civil war in corresponding countries. Their results revealed that when the globalization variables, with the exception of internet use, are more important to a country it is less likely to have a civil war. These variables produce an economic stability that makes people less inclined to interrupt the status quo. Their results showed that poor countries with large populations that were less likely to be economically equal in already dire financial straits are far more likely to see internal unrest. While globalization is unlikely to be the root cause of civil war and can help reduce the likelihood it cannot prevent it as there may be deeper forces at work such as cultural or ethnic inequalities that may be exacerbated by globalization.

Feasibility of Telehealth Essay

Health is a vital aspect of life, which is why it is important to have an access to different health care services. The world’s population is rising radically every year; thus, the demand for quality health care services also increases. With the application of modern technology the health system has been able to accommodate this demand in many countries through the implementation of Telehealth. In Canada, accessibility and distribution of health care services is influenced by aspects like large landmass, population concentration and economy and (Sevean, et. al., 2008). The feasibility of Telehealth as an instrument for delivering health care services in Canada will be discussed in this paper, focusing on four key themes: service to rural areas, cost effectiveness, responsiveness and ease of access that will be tackled consecutively. The first paragraph after the introduction aims to give an overview on what and how Telehealth works in Canada. Central to the arguments presented in this paper is the pros of using Telehealth by means of telecommunication technologies as a substitute to the actual patient-to-health care provider interaction. Telehealth is defined by Health Canada (2000) as â€Å"the application of telecommunications and information technology to the delivery of health care and health-related services and information over large and small distances†. It is basically divided into two distinct parts: the technology being used and the persons (patient or health care provider) (Thede, 2001, para. 2). Telehealth according to Prinz, Cramer, and Englund uses four modes of telecommunication: voice-only or telephone, video images or exchange of information through digital pictures, and virtual contract or video conferencing (Background section, para. 4). Included in the Telehealth Ontario service is a contact number that you can Canadians can call 24 hours a day seven days a week. In consulting the health care provider through phone, once on the line, the health care provider, usually registered nurse, will asks the person on the other line to describe his or her health concern, the nurse will then evaluate the person’s condition and will help him or her to determine the best option available for him or her; whether to go see a doctor, admit himself or herself in an emergency room, the nurse can also advise self-care (Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-term Care, 2009). Telehealth has already been incorporated in almost every medical field like Pediatrics, Psychiatry, Cardiology, Radiology and Oncology providing accuracy and more services to people. Telehealth aims to elevate the serviceability of health system by providing access for people who has a health concern anytime of any day anywhere. Telehealth provides better health service for people living in the rural areas. Canada has a large landmass with bodies of water surrounding it. The population is not equally distributed, most Canadians live in urban areas, and some smaller communities are located at rural areas and the Aboriginals mostly live in small isolated areas. In the study they conducted in 2008, Sevean, Dampier, Spadoni, Strickland and, Pilatzke found out that Canadians who live in smaller isolated community do not have an access to a quality health care because even though Canada has an excellent health services most of these health services centered on the urban areas and that is a lso why most health care professionals favor working on urban areas resulting to a shortage of health care professionals in the rural areas. In addition, specific services might only be available to large hospitals that are mostly located on big cities, forcing people in isolated communities to travel miles by land, water or air to get the medical help they need. Most road conditions in the rural areas are undeveloped increasing their inconvenience. Also, weather condition is also a great consideration in accessing health care, air and sea travel is usually cancelled during storms most roads are also inaccessible when there is a strong downpour of snow. Unavailability of help during emergencies results in fatality especially in the northern Aboriginal communities (Sevean et. al, 2008). By improving the access of health care for rural access it also decreases the mortality rate. Telehealth is designed to reduce the cost associated with the delivery of health care without compromising on the quality. Treatments and medications can be costly depending on the type and intervals plus the extra inconvenience associated with it such as travelling costs, hospital accommodations, stress, and physical limitations (Sevean et al., 2008). Included in the patient’s bill in the hospital is the room accommodation, the longer they stay at the hospital the more they have to pay. Through Telehealth, patients who underwent surgeries or had suffered illnesses have the option to check-out early and continue the recovery in their own homes; thus, lessening the costs of their hospitalization. As mentioned earlier, people who live in small isolated communities have to travel kilometers to miles in order for them to meet with their health practitioner on the cities to get medical attention or follow-up from post-recovery, through telehealth they are able to save on transportation, gas mileage and other extra expenses like parking fee. Moreover, Saqui et al, (2011) argued that telehealth consultation decreases morbidity, prevent unnecessary suboptimal costly treatment, patient transfers and travelling cost when a change in the diagnosis and treatment plan occur (Discussion Section, para. 2) Through videoconferencing, Telehealth are able to give immediate diagnosis for a patient who needs urgent care (Saqui et al., 2011). A lot of effort is involve before a patient co uld meet with his or her doctor such as making an appointment, sorting his or her schedule and so on and so forth. By the time the person with health concern meets with his or her doctor the illness might already aggravated; consequently, the health care system through Telehealth provides a quicker and more efficient way on determining the type and seriousness of the patients and illness without leaving the comfort of their homes. By contacting Telehealth as soon as a person notices some irregularities in the person’s normal body functions that indicates that he may or may not be ill, enable that person who called to act immediately preventing the illness from advancing any further or on the other hand be reassured that there’s nothing to worry about. Furthermore, Telehealth also made the monitoring on recovering patients at their homes faster, the registered nurse in-charge of monitoring the patient can guide the patient in his recovery process through a streaming media. Any concerns that may arise in the recovery process can be solved a lot quicker, the patient can leave a message or phoned and the health care provider will respond to it as soon as possible stating the fact that Telehealth service is available 24 hours a day. Moscovice and Rosenblalt (2000) that the quality of health care cannot be measured by the morbidity and mortality rates, but by the ability of the health care provider to recognize and respond to their patient immediately. One thing that proves that Telehealth is feasible in improving the delivery of health-care is its acceptability. Although Telehealth is designed mostly to cater the health care needs of people living in the rural areas and isolated communities, according to Health Canada, Telehealth service has been extended to the impoverished, the socially disadvantaged, ‘the institutionalized’ and the urban and suburban households has been added recently. The Telehealth system is tailored to improve enhance the access of the clients and their families to the health system in regards to their location, gender, age and condition. Prinz et. al, identify age as a barrier that create health discrepancy because of the limited access to health care, ‘home bound status’ and issues on transportation which is why in older patients, a branch of Telehealth called Telemonitoring is being used to provide an immediate respond in case of emergency, to allow them to stay at their homes, to lessen the risk for accidents and ‘to delay the institutionalization ( Pruski and Knops, 2005). This branch of telehealth has been proven to improve the elder’s quality of life, making the task of the caregiver easier, and lessen the elder’s admission to the hospital. The high acceptability of Telehealth comes from its ability to provide maximum support not only for the patients but also for their families. The clients feel secured because they are in a familiar environment where their families could assist them. Moreover, Telehealth has been proven to lessen the stress involve in the health care process especially for the patients with disabilities because of the reduced waiting time, omitting the need for transportation. In 2005, 100 % of the respondents in the Pediatric Surgical Telehealth Clinics survey conducted by Miller and Levesque indicated that they are satisfied in the service of Telehealth and would recommend it to others (Sevean et. al, 2008). Conclusion The four key themes of Telehealth discussed above: service to rural areas, cost effectiveness, responsiveness, and ease of access and acceptability, and the description on how Telehealth works illustrate its feasibility in delivering the health care the clients need and the advantages of using Telehealth versus the traditional way of patient-to-health care practitioners. Telehealth provides better health care services in the rural areas and isolated communities, it also lessen the cost of access to health care by decreasing the need to travel and other expenses, in addition Telehealth also provides an immediate feedback to the client or patient that is important during emergency, therefore decreases mortality and morbidity rate and lastly, it is designed for various ages, gender, disease to provide an ease of access and acceptability. Telehealth In conclusion is a more efficient way of delivering care to people through the use of various modern technologies; its feasibility has been proven. The health of future and current generations depends on the availability and efficient delivery of health care. References Office of Health and the Information Highway, Health Canada. (March 2000). Evaluating Telehealth ‘Solutions’ A Review and Synthesis of the Telehealth Evaluation Literature. Retrieved from: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hcs-sss/pubs/ehealth-esante/2000-tele- eval/index-eng.php Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-term Care. (2009). Telehealth Program.-Ministry Program-Public Information. Retrieved from: http://www.health.gov.on.ca/en/public/programs/telehealth/ Prinz, L., Cramer, M., Englund, A. (July-August 2008). Telehealth: A policy analysis for quality, impact on patient outcomes, and political feasibility. Nursing Outlook. 56(4), 152-158. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029655408000456 Saqui O, Chang A, McGonigle S, Purdy B, Fairholm L, Baun M, Yeung M, Rossos P, Allard J. (2007). Telehealth videoconferencing: Improving home parental nutrition parent care to rural areas of Ontario, Canada. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 31(3), 234-239. Retrieved from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17463150 Sevean P, Dampier S, Spadoni M, Strickland S, Pilatzke S. (2009). Patients and families experiences with video telehealth in rural/remote communities in Northern Canada. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 18(1), 2573-2579. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19694885 Thede, Linda Q. (2001). â€Å"Overview and Summary: Telehealth: Promise Or Peril?†. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. 6(30). Retrieved from: www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No3Sept01/TelehealthOverview.aspx Vincent, C., Reinharz, D., Deaudelin, I., Garcieau, M. (2005).Why some Health Care Professionals Adopt Telemonitoring and Others Not?. In Pruski, A. & Knops, H (Eds.). Assistive Technology: From Virtuality to Reality. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press

Credit Creation

SANDHYA DWIVEDI ROLL NO: 60 SUBJECT: CENTRAL BANKING CREDIT CREATION AND MONEY SUPPLY PROJECT SUBMITTED TO PROF. RASHMI CREDIT CREATION Credit creation is one of the important functions of a commercial bank. It constitutes the major component of money supply in the economy commercial banks differs from other financial institutions in this aspect. Other financial institutions transfer money from the lenders to the borrowers. Commercial banks while performing the same function, they create credit or bank money also. Professor Sayers says, â€Å"Banks are not merely purveyors of money, but in an important sense, they are the manufacturers of money†. The process of credit creation occurs when banks accepts deposits and provide loans and advances. When the customers deposit money with the bank, they are called primary deposits. This money will not be withdrawn immediately by them. Hence banks keeps a certain amount of deposits as reserves which is known as cash reserve ratio and provide the balance amount as loans and advances. Thus, every deposit creates a loan. Commercial banks give loans and advances against some security to the public. But the bank does not give the loan amount directly. It opens an account in the name of the borrower and deposits the amount in that account. Thus, every loan creates a deposit. The loan amount can be withdrawn by means of checks. They create deposits while lending money also. These deposits created by banks with the help of primary deposits are called derivative deposits. Customers use these loans to make payments. While paying they issue a checks against these deposits. The person who receives the checks, deposit it in another bank. For that bank, this will be the primary deposit. A part of the deposit will be kept as a reserve and the balance will be used for giving loans and advances. This process is repeated by other banks. When all the banks involve in this process, it is called Multiple Credit Creation. This can be explained with an example. Suppose, if a person deposits Rs. 1,000/- in a bank. Rs. 1000/- is the primary deposit. The minimum cash reserves ratio is 10% to meet the demand of its depositors. Now the bank can lend out Rs. 900/- i. e. Primary deposit – Cash reserve = Derivative deposit. Rs. 1, 000 – Rs. 100 = Rs. 900 (10% of 1000 is Rs. 100) The bank will give the amount to his creditor only in his account which is opened in his name. The borrower can deposit the amount with the bank. The bank can lend out Rs. 810/- out of Rs. 900/-, which has come back to the bank in the second round as primary deposits. This process will continue and if there is no cash leakage the credit creation would be processed as in the below figure: [pic] This process can be explained with a formula. Total credit created = Original deposit x Credit multiplier co-efficient. Credit multiplier co-efficient = 1/CRR x 1/10% = 1/10/100 = 10 Total Credit created = 1000 x 10 = 10000 If CRR rises to 20%, the credit created will be 1/20/100 = 100/20 = 5 So 1000 x 5 = Rs. 5000/- It is clear, that the amount of credit created depends upon the cash reserve ratio. Higher the CRR, lesser will be the credit created and vice versa. Limitations: ? Credit creation depends upon the amount of deposits. ? There exists an inverse relation between credit creation and cash reserve ratio. During inflation the CRR will be high to reduce credit. ? Banking habits of the people are well developed; it will lead to expansion of credit. ? Loans are sanctioned by banks against some security. If enough securities are available, then credit creation will be more and vice versa. If all commercial banks, follows a uniform policy regarding CRR, this credit creation would be smooth. ? If the liquidity preference of the people is high, the credit creation will be less and vice versa. ? If business conditions are bright then demand for credit will be more. ? Customers should be willing to borrow from the banks to facilitate credit creation. ? Credit control policy of the Central Bank, for example during the depression, the RBI encourages the commercial banks to expand credit. CONCLUSION:- To conclude, we can say that credit creation by banks is one of the important & only sources to generate income. And when the reserve requirement increased by the central bank it would directly affect on the credit creation by bank because then the lendable funds with the bank decreases and vice versa. MONEY SUPPLY The total supply of money in circulation in a given country's economy at a given time. There are several measures for the money supply, such as M1, M2, and M3. The money supply is considered an important instrument for controlling inflation by those economists who say that growth in money supply will only lead to inflation if money demand is stable. In order to control the money supply, regulators have to decide which particular measure of the money supply to target. The broader the targeted measure, the more difficult it will be to control that particular target. However, targeting an unsuitable narrow money supply measure may lead to a situation where the total money supply in the country is not adequately controlled. In economics, money supply or money stock is the total amount of money available in an economy at a particular point in time. There are several ways to define â€Å"money,† but standard measures usually include currency in circulation and demand deposits. Money supply data are recorded and published, usually by the government or the central bank of the country. Public and private-sector analysts have long monitored changes in money supply because of its possible effects on the price level, inflation and the business cycle. That relation between money and prices is historically associated with the quantity theory of money. There is strong empirical evidence of a direct relation between long-term price inflation and money-supply growth. These underlie the current reliance on monetary policy as a means of controlling inflation. This causal chain is however contentious, with some heterodox economists arguing that the money supply is endogenous and that the sources of inflation must be found in the distributional structure of the economy. Purpose: Money supply data is recorded and published in order to monitor the growth of the money supply. Public- and private-sector analysts have long monitored this growth because of the effects that it is believed to have on real economic activity and on the price level. The money supply is considered an important instrument for controlling inflation by economists who say that growth in money supply will only lead to inflation if money demand is stable. Convention: Because (in principle) money is anything that can be used in settlement of a debt, there are varying measures of money supply. Since most modern economic systems are regulated by governments through monetary policy, the supply of money is broken down into types of money based on how much of an effect monetary policy can have on that type of money. Narrow money is the type of money that is more easily affected by monetary policy whereas broad money is more difficult to affect through monetary policy. Narrow money exists in smaller quantities while broad money exists in much larger quantities. Each type of money can be classified by placing it along a spectrum between narrow (easily affected) and broad (difficult to affect) money. The different types of money are typically classified as M's. The number of M's usually range from M0 (most narrow) to M3 (broadest) but which M's are actually used depends on the system. The typical layout for each of the M's is as follows: †¢ M0: Physical currency. A measure of the money supply which combines any liquid or cash assets held within a central bank and the amount of physical currency circulating in the economy. M0 (M-zero) is the most liquid measure of the money supply. It only includes cash or assets that could quickly be converted into currency. This measure is known as narrow money because it is the smallest measure of the money supply. †¢ M1: M0 + demand deposits, which are checking accounts. This is used as a measurement for economists trying to quantify the amount of money in circulation. The M1 is a very liquid measure of the money supply, as it contains cash and assets that can quickly be converted to currency. †¢ M2: M1 + small time deposits (less than $100,000), savings deposits, and non-institutional money-market funds. M2 is a broader classification of money than M1. Economists use M2 when looking to quantify the amount of money in circulation and trying to explain different economic monetary conditions. M2 is key economic indicator used to forecast inflation. M3: M2 + all large time deposits, institutional money-market funds, short-term repurchase agreements, along with other larger liquid assets. The broadest measure of money; it is used by economists to estimate the entire supply of money within an economy. Fractional-reserve banking: The different forms of money in government money supply statistics arise from the practice of fractional-reserve banking. W henever a bank gives out a loan in a fractional-reserve banking system, a new type of money is created. This new type of money is what makes up the non-M0 components in the M1-M3 statistics. In short, there are two types of money in a fractional-reserve banking system: central bank money (physical currency) commercial bank money (money created through loans) – sometimes referred to as checkbook money. In the money supply statistics, central bank money is M0 while the commercial bank money is divided up into the M1-M3 components. Generally, the types of commercial bank money that tend to be valued at lower amounts are classified in the narrow category of M1 while the types of commercial bank money that tend to exist in larger amounts are categorized in M2 and M3, with M3 having the largest. The Reserve Bank of India defines the monetary aggregates as: †¢ Reserve Money (M0): Currency in circulation + Bankers’ deposits with the RBI + ‘Other’ deposits with the RBI = Net RBI credit to the Government + RBI credit to the commercial sector + RBI’s claims on banks + RBI’s net foreign assets + Government’s currency liabilities to the public – RBI’s net non-monetary liabilities. †¢ M1: Currency with the public + Deposit money of the public (Demand deposits with the banking system + ‘Other’ deposits with the RBI). †¢ M2: M1 + Savings deposits with Post office savings banks. M3: M1+ Time deposits with the banking system = Net bank credit to the Government + Bank credit to the commercial sector + Net foreign exchange assets of the banking sector + Government’s currency liabilities to the public – Net non-monetary liabilities of the banking sector (Other than Time Deposits). †¢ M4: M 3 + All deposits with post office savings banks (excluding National Savings Certificates). [pic] Link with inflation: Monetary exchange equation: Money supply is important because it is linked to inflation by the â€Å"monetary exchange equation†: MV = PQ †¢ M is the total dollars in the nation’s money supply †¢ V is the number of times per year each dollar is spent †¢ P is the average price of all the goods and services sold during the year †¢ Q is the quantity of goods and services sold during the year where: †¢ velocity = the number of times per year that money turns over in transactions for goods and services (if it is a number it is always simply nominal GDP / money supply) †¢ nominal GDP = real Gross Domestic Product ? GDP deflator †¢ GDP deflator = measure of inflation. Money supply may be less than or greater than the demand of money in the economy In other words, if the money supply grows faster than real GDP growth (described as â€Å"unproductive debt expansion†), inflation is likely to follow (â€Å"inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon†). This statement must be qualified slightly, due to changes in velocity. While the monetarists presume that velocity is relatively stable, in fact velocity exhibits variability at business-cycle frequencies, so that the velocity equation is not particularly useful as a short run tool. Moreover, in the US, velocity has grown at an average of slightly more than 1% a year between 1959 and 2005 (which is to be expected due to the increase in population, unless money supply grows very rapidly). Another aspect of money supply growth that has come under discussion since the collapse of the housing bubble in 2007 is the notion of â€Å"asset classes. † Economists have noted that M3 growth may not affect all assets equally. For example, following the stock market run up and then decline in 2001, home prices began an historically unusual climb that then dropped sharply in 2007. The dilemma for the Federal Reserve in regulating the money supply is that lowering interest rates to slow price declines in one asset class, e. g. real estate, may cause prices in other asset classes to rise, e. g. commodities. Percentage: In terms of percentage changes (to a small approximation, the percentage change in a product, say XY is equal to the sum of the percentage changes  %X +  %Y). So: %P +  %Y =  %M +  %V That equation rearranged gives the â€Å"basic inflation identity†: %P =  %M +  %V –  %Y Inflation (%P) is equal to the rate of money growth (%M), plus the change in velocity (%V), minus the rate of output growth (%Y). Bank reserves at central bank When a central bank is â€Å"easing†, it triggers an increase in money supply by purchasing government securities on the open market thus increasing available funds for private banks to loan through fractional-reserve banking (the issue of new money through loans) and thus grows the money supply. When the central bank is â€Å"tightening†, it slows the process of private bank issue by selling securities on the open market and pulling money (that could be loaned) out of the private banking sector. It reduces or increases the supply of short term government debt, and inversely increases or reduces the supply of lending funds and thereby the ability of private banks to issue new money through debt. Note that while the terms â€Å"easing† and â€Å"tightening† are commonly used to describe the central bank's stated interest rate policy, a central bank has the ability to influence the money supply in a much more direct fashion. Conclusion: Assuming that prices do not instantly adjust to equate supply and demand, one f the principal jobs of central banks is to ensure that aggregate (or overall) demand matches the potential supply of an economy. Central banks can do this because overall demand can be controlled by the money supply. By putting more money into circulation, the central bank can stimulate demand. By taking money out of circulation, the central bank can reduce demand. For instance, if there is an overall shortfall of demand relative to supply (that is, a gi ven economy can potentially produce more goods than consumers wish to buy) then some resources in the economy will be unemployed (i. . , there will be a recession). In this case the central bank can stimulate demand by increasing the money supply. In theory the extra demand will then lead to job creation for the unemployed resources (people, machines, land), leading back to full employment (more precisely, back to the natural rate of unemployment, which is basically determined by the amount of government regulation and is different in different countries). However, central banks have a difficult balancing act because, if they put too much money into circulation, demand will outstrip an economy's ability to supply so that, even when all resources are employed, demand still cannot be satisfied. In this case, unemployment will fall back to the natural rate and there will then be competition for the last remaining labor, leading to wage rises and inflation. This can then lead to another recession as the central bank takes money out of circulation (raising interest rates in the process) to try to damp down demand.